According to Hudson, Lane, and Pullen (2005), reading fluency is made up of at least three key elements: accurate reading of connected text at a conversational rate with appropriate prosody or expression.
Accuracy - Word-reading accuracy refers to the ability to recognize or decode words correctly. To achieve word-reading accuracy requires, first, a deep understanding of alphabetic principle; second, the ability to blend sounds into words; and third, knowledge of a large number of high-frequency words.
Rate - Reading rate refers to how quickly and accurately one reads connected text. Rate is commonly measured as the number of words read correctly per minute.
Prosody - It is defined as the rhythmic and tonal aspects of speech: the "music" of spoken language (Hudson et al. 2005). Prosody comprises a series of features including pitch (intonation), stress patterns (syllabic prominence), and duration (length of time) that convey information above and beyond that provided by the actual word themselves (Allington 1983; Dowhower 1991; Schreiber 1980, 1991).
Accuracy - Word-reading accuracy refers to the ability to recognize or decode words correctly. To achieve word-reading accuracy requires, first, a deep understanding of alphabetic principle; second, the ability to blend sounds into words; and third, knowledge of a large number of high-frequency words.
Rate - Reading rate refers to how quickly and accurately one reads connected text. Rate is commonly measured as the number of words read correctly per minute.
Prosody - It is defined as the rhythmic and tonal aspects of speech: the "music" of spoken language (Hudson et al. 2005). Prosody comprises a series of features including pitch (intonation), stress patterns (syllabic prominence), and duration (length of time) that convey information above and beyond that provided by the actual word themselves (Allington 1983; Dowhower 1991; Schreiber 1980, 1991).
Several variables influence s student's fluent reading of a given text: a student's reading comprehension, the proportion of words a student recognizes instantaneously, a student's decoding speed and accuracy, a student's metacognitive abilities, the extent of a student's vocabulary, and whether or not the student is reading in a meaningful text.
Weekly growth rates indicate the average number of WCPM per week students are expected to gain in order to improve in reading.
Target ORF score - baseline median ORF score divided by number of weeks of instruction=target weekly growth
80 WCPM - 43 WCPM divided by 32 = 1.15 words per week
Informal Checklist to Identify Possible Causes of Student's Dysfluent Reading
Is Reading Inaccurate?
There are two ways to determine whether the student is making sufficient progress.
1. Visually comparing the student's ORF scores on the aim line. If a student has three ORF scores in a row that fall below the aim line, the student is not making sufficient progress, indicating that instruction must be adjusted.
2. Compare the student's actual weekly rate of growth to the target weekly rage of growth.
Listening to the Student Read
Stress Listen to how the student stresses, or emphasizes, various words. In a sentence, do all words receive equal stress or do only the most important words receive stress? Underline words that are stressed.
Phrasing . Listen to the student's phrasing and indicate teh length of the pauses between phrases. For a short pause, mark one front slash (/), and for a long pause, mark two front slashes (//).
Intonation . Note how the student uses end-mark punctuation to guide his or her intonation. Does the student's pitch rise for a question mark, get louder for an exclamation point, or dip for a comma?
Expression . Note the student's expression when reading dialogue. Does the student use appropriate vocal tone to represent a character's mental state, such as excitement, sadness, fear, or confidence?
Pauses Note whether the student pauses for punctuation, such as commas and end marks.
Nonprosodic Readers
Questions for Interpretation / Instructional Options
Target ORF score - baseline median ORF score divided by number of weeks of instruction=target weekly growth
80 WCPM - 43 WCPM divided by 32 = 1.15 words per week
Informal Checklist to Identify Possible Causes of Student's Dysfluent Reading
Is Reading Inaccurate?
- have sufficient phonics knowledge and skills?
- have sufficient decoding skills-especially for multisyllabic word reading?
- recognize a large bank of high-frequency irregular words on sight?
- possess an average or greater oral vocabulary?
- know how to monitor his or her reading accuracy?
- decode words sound by sound rather than by chunking?
- make several attempts before accurately decoding an unfamiliar word?
- lack automatic word recognition?
- have enough background knowledge to understand the text?
- make a "speed-accuracy trade-off"?
- fail to notice or pause at punctuation?
- fail to pause at natural phrase boundaries?
- lack syntactic knowledge of English?
- lack expression in reading?
- focus too much on word identification?
There are two ways to determine whether the student is making sufficient progress.
1. Visually comparing the student's ORF scores on the aim line. If a student has three ORF scores in a row that fall below the aim line, the student is not making sufficient progress, indicating that instruction must be adjusted.
2. Compare the student's actual weekly rate of growth to the target weekly rage of growth.
Listening to the Student Read
Stress Listen to how the student stresses, or emphasizes, various words. In a sentence, do all words receive equal stress or do only the most important words receive stress? Underline words that are stressed.
Phrasing . Listen to the student's phrasing and indicate teh length of the pauses between phrases. For a short pause, mark one front slash (/), and for a long pause, mark two front slashes (//).
Intonation . Note how the student uses end-mark punctuation to guide his or her intonation. Does the student's pitch rise for a question mark, get louder for an exclamation point, or dip for a comma?
Expression . Note the student's expression when reading dialogue. Does the student use appropriate vocal tone to represent a character's mental state, such as excitement, sadness, fear, or confidence?
Pauses Note whether the student pauses for punctuation, such as commas and end marks.
Nonprosodic Readers
Questions for Interpretation / Instructional Options
- Does the student's nomprosodic reading match the way he or she speaks? A student cannot be expected to read at a different level of prosody than he or she speaks. Providing language instruction may be more appropriate than instruction in reading prosody.
- Does the student equally stress each word in a sentence? Have students practice placing the stress, or the emphasis, on different words in the same sentence. For example:
- I am so happy.
- I am so happy.
- I am so happy.
- Does the student read primarily word by word? To group words into appropriate phrases, a student must be able to automatically recognize the words. Providing instruction in decoding and word-reading accuracy and automaticity may improve decoding and word-reading accuracy and automaticity may improve a student's prosody.
- Does the student group words into appropriate phrases? Provide instruction in recognizing phrase boundaries using phrase-cued text.
- Does the student use punctuation to guide intonation? Provide contextualized instruction in the names and meanings of punctuation marks. Have students read the same sentence with different punctuation? For example:
- Visiting the public library is fun!
- Visiting the public library is fun?
- Visiting the public library is fun.
- Does the student read in a monotone? Use Reader's Theater to help develop a student's expression.
The Sourcebook is the essential guide for improving reading achievement by helping educators to bridge the gap between evidence-based reading research and actionable instructional strategies.
Explicit coverage (what? why? when? and how?) of essential components of reading instruction
Sample lesson models and resources to easily implement best practices
Common Core information, cross-references, and graphic explanations
- This books contains:
Explicit coverage (what? why? when? and how?) of essential components of reading instruction
Sample lesson models and resources to easily implement best practices
Common Core information, cross-references, and graphic explanations
Fluency Activities
QuickReads for Small GroupsInstructional time takes about 15-20 minutes, for 3-4 times a week. QuickReads received a "strong" ESSA Rating.
Echo ReadingThis video depicts a third grade small group engaging in an echo reading activity.
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Choral ReadingChoral reading is reading aloud in unison with a whole class or group. Choral reading helps build fluency, self-confidence, and motivation.
Reader's TheaterReader's Theater offers an entertaining and engaging means of improving fluency and enhancing comprehension.Running Records |
Partner ReadingPartner reading increases the amount of reading students do during the day while freeing the teacher to work with small groups or individuals.
Assisted ReadingSupport students with tools that allow for repeated readings and performance, and model expressive reading with audio, e-books, and your reading. |